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President Andrew Jackson Vetoes Bank Bill—July 10, 1832

Ernesto Hernà ¡ndez Rodrà ­guez Deacon Orr Economics October 9, 2012 President Andrew Jackson Vetoes Bank Bill—July 10, 1832 President Andrew Jackson veto against the bank bill is truly a communication to Congress but it is also like a political manifesto. He states that the privileges possessed by the bank are unauthorized by the Constitution, subversive of the rights of the States, and dangerous to the liberties of the people. In McCuloch v Maryland, the court turned to the necessary and proper clause which grants Congress enumerated powers which include the power to regulate collect taxes. President Jackson explains the necessity in regards to the functions that the bank is trying to fulfill: The degree of its necessity,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦show more content†¦This act excludes the whole American people from competition in the purchase of this monopoly and dispose of it for many millions less than it is worth. The fourth section provision secures to the State banks a legal privilege in the Bank of the United States which is withheld from all private citizens. There was a lack of equality when paying with notes. A State bank that had notes by a particular branch could pay the dept to the Bank of the United States with those notes, but a citizen couldn’t pay with those notes but must have sold them at a discount or sent them to the branch to be cashed. This does not measure out equal justice to the hig h and the low, the rich and the poor. The president of the bank said that most of the State banks existed by its forbearance, the abstention of enforcing the payment of the debt. The influence of the self elected directory which is identified with those of the foreign stockholders may become concentered in a particular interest that could affect the purity of elections and the independence of the country when it goes to war. Their influence could have been so great as to influence elections and control the affairs of the nation. Works Cited Jackson, Andrew.  «Miller Center. » 10 de July de 1832. Miller Center. Monday October 2012. lt;http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3636gt;. McBride, Alex.  «pbs. » s.f. The Supreme Court. Monday October 2012.Show MoreRelatedAndrew Jackson s Political Power1902 Words   |  8 Pages Andrew Jackson’s Political Power Robert Atwood Ivy Tech Community College Andrew Jackson was a soldier, a lawyer, a husband, an orphan, and in his most famous status, the 7th President of the United States. Andrew Jackson was loved by the people, and hated by his political rivals. He pushed the limits of his power as the president, and at the same time restricted it, as to not overstep his place as the voice of the people. Through his terms as president he used his power to protect the rights

Predicting Financial Distress and Evaluating †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Predicting Financial Distress and Evaluating. Answer: Introduction: JB Hi-Fi Limited current liabilities for 2013 financial year were $442379000 while for 2012 financial year were $439481000. The current liabilities for 2013 financial year increased to $2898000 from 2012 financial year. The Company classified the following liabilities under current liabilities; provisions, current tax liabilities, trade and other payable, and other financial liabilities. The company classified liabilities that were not in these class as other current liabilities (Nobes, 2014). The JB Hi-Fi major liability at the end of 2013 financial year was trade and other payable. The amount was $387020000 which formed 65% of the total liabilities of the company. Secondly was the borrowing. The company borrowing at the end of 2013 financial year amounted to $124331000. This accounted for 20% of the total liabilities for the company at the end of 2013 financial year. In general, the current liabilities of JB Hi-Fi were the major liabilities for the 2013 financial year. The current liabilities amounted to $442379000 that accounted for 70% of the total liabilities that JB Hi-Fi has for 2013 financial year. JB Hi-Fi included the following items on provision on the company balance sheet; employee benefits and lease provisions. The provisions were under current liabilities and amounted to $36391000. The employee benefits amounted to $35111000 in 2013 financial year which was up from $2780200 in 2012 financial year. The lease provision for 2013 financial year amounted to $1280000 down from $2871000 in 2012 financial year. The items included in the provisions on the JB Hi-Fi financial statement satisfy the IAS37/ AASB137 definition. The items listed are different from other liabilities that are classified in the companys financial statements such as accruals or trade payables (Bardia, 2012). The provisions are contingent in terms of amount and timing. Therefore, the provisions included on the JB Hi-Fis balance sheet were liabilities with uncertain amount and timing. The employee benefits liabilities for JB Hi-Fi Company increased by $7309000 from 2012 to 2013 financial year. The JB Hi-Fi limited used bank loans as a source of interest bearing cash to finance it operations. The company raised $124331000 in 2013 financial year down from $149775000 in 2012 financial year. The company cash bearing interest balance in 2013 financial year was $125000000 while 2012 financial year was $150000000. The balance repaid in 2013 financial year was $25000000. The JB Hi-Fi Company had no secured noncurrent liabilities for 2013 financial year. The company had unsecured bank loans amount ting to $124331000. This was different from 2012 financial year where the company had secured noncurrent liabilities amounting to $149775000. This means that the company secured it bank loans in 2012 FY and had unsecured bank loans for 2013 FY. The JB Hi-Fi only had bank loans that were non current borrowing. The bank loan balance for 2013 financial year amounted to $124331000. The bank loan was due within 5 years. The JB Hi-Fi Company has non-current provisions. They include the following; employee benefits, lease provisions and other provisions. The company recorded employees benefited as noncurrent liabilities at $3747000 in 2013 FY which was above 2012 FY at $ 3304000. The lease provisions for non current provisions amounted to $5522000 for 2013 FY below 2012 FY which was $3304000. Other noncurrent provisions amounted to $147000 in 2013 FY below $2132000 in 2012 FY. The non current provision on the JB Hi-Fi financial statements were provision whose amounts were uncertain but the time was certain. The amount in this provision was determined to be due for a period of more than one year hence recorded as noncurrent provisions in the balance sheet (Choi, and Meek, 2011). Therefore, the non current provision on the JB Hi-Fi financial statements represented uncertain amount whose timing was more than one year. The country Road Limited is a public company and it income statement shows deductions for income tax expense. This deduction would be different to an income statement of a partnership form of business. The income statement of a partnership does not have a deduction for income tax. First, a partnership is not an entity of its own. A partnership business is not separate from the owners who started it and therefore cannot be taxed as a separate entity (Schroeder, Clark, and Cathey, 2011). This is different from a limited company which is an entity by its own making it an artificial person. A limited organization operates on it owns as an individual and therefore pays tax to the authority. Secondly, a partnership does not pay income tax on profits that the business earns in a financial year. The profit and loss earned by the business in a partnership is shared among the partners. Then each partner then pays tax on their own. An individual in partnership discloses the profit earned from t he business to the authority when filling personal returns. Therefore, the income tax is not deducted on a partnership income statement but rather the tax is attributed to each partner in a partnership. From the Country Road Limited statement of change in equity, the total profits are appropriated to retained earnings. The total profit from a financial year is added to the retained earnings for the company. The profits for the period are added to the previous period retained earnings. The total profits of a period are either paid out to the shareholders in terms of dividends or retained in the business. This is different from a partnership form of business. The profits of a period are appropriated among the partners in the business in their agreed ratios. There are no retained earnings appropriated in the business financial statement. Retained earnings in a partnership are not allowed because they create confusion for taxation in a partnership. The difference in appropriation of profits for the period between Country Road Limited and a Partnership are because of the nature of formation of the business and submission of tax. A limited company is owned by shareholders who are paid in terms of dividends. Since a limited company is an artificial person according to law, it requires funds to undertake it emergency or unforeseen actions in the planning process (Birt et al., 2013). Secondly, a limited company is taxed as an entity on the profits earned from the financial period. The authority is able to tax the company before the profits of the company are declared which is different from a partnership where taxes are not deducted directly to the profits earned within a financial period. The taxes of a partnership are paid by partners in the business as part of their individual taxes. Therefore, the appropriation of retained earnings in Country Road statement of equity change will b different to a partnership because of the different in business formation and payment of taxes. The Country Road Limited has issued capital in their balance sheet. The company recognizes issued and pays capital at fair value of the consideration of when issued or received. The company ensures that costs arising from ordinary shares issuing is recognized directly as a reduction in the equity (Horngren et al., 2012). This is different from a typical partnership. A partnership does not issue capital to the public. First, a partnership is owned by partners while a limited business is owned by shareholders. The shareholders contribute capital to the business. The limited business issues shares that are bought by willing buyers from the public that form the capital of the company. A limited company offers it shares for buying through the stock exchange. The number of shares that a person or organization buys from the company determines the amount of dividends to be paid. Limited companies pay dividends per share. This is different from a typical partnership where capital is contributed by the partners who come together to start the business. The contribution of capital forms the ratio for sharing profits (Chandra, 2011). Therefore, a limited company has to account for the shares issues for every financial year. Secondly, a limited company has limited liability to the owners of the company. The company operates as a separate independent entity and therefore owners the resources and liabilities. This necessitates the company to issue part of it ownership to individuals by issuing shares. The process of issuing shares for capital increasing the number of owners of a company. A limited company can also reduce the number of owners by buying the shares from the shar eholders (Needles, Powers, and Crosson, 2013). The company has it liabilities limited to the capital that enables owners wealth not to be repossessed to settle debts in case the company is unable to settle all its debts. This is different from a partnership. A partnerships is neither a separate entity from it owners nor do it owners have a limited liability. Partnership owners are not separate from the entity and the entity does not exist independently from its owners. This means that there is no difference between the business capital and liabilities and owners capital and liabilities. If the business is unable to settle it liabilities the owners assets can be taken to settle the business obligation. This entails that partnership capital is not separate from that of its owners and therefore it cannot be accounted as a different asset. Country Road Limited is required to prepare statement of cash flow for the company and be included in the financial statements. The cash flow statement is an important statement in financial reporting of a company. Limited companies are required prepared statement of financial statement by Accounting Standard AASB 107. This standard is under section 334 of the corporations Act of 2001 of Australia (Price, 2012). The cash flow objective in financial reports is providing useful financial information to users of annual reports. It enables the users to assess an entitys ability to generate cash and cash equivalents. Cash flows in an entity enable the users to make informed economic and financial decisions regarding the entity. The statement of cash flow outlines the investing, financing, and operating activities of an entity for a given period of time. The cash flow shows the cash outflows that were invested by an entity in a specific period of time. This helps determine the amount inves ted. Secondly, the statement of cash flow shows where an entity gets it financing from. The statement shows the sources of funding for the period. Third, the statement of cash flow the cash outflow to operating activities from the entity. This information is important to several stakeholders of the entity. First, the statement of cash flow is important to lenders who assess the ability of the entity to settle their debts. Lenders use cash flow to assess the amount of cash received by the company (Bradbury, 2011). Secondly are the owners who use the information to analyze the ability of the company to increase their wealth. Thirdly, the statement of cash flow is used by the management to assess the ability of the entity to meet it obligations as they fall due (Halabi, Barrett, and Dyt, 2010). This is different from a typical partnership. A partnership has no separate owners and their business is not assessed as a separate entity. A partnership is assessed through the partners by lend ers. The statement of cash flow is not a requirement for partnership in Australia. A partnership is not also required to report to the public about its operations. Therefore, a partnership is different from a limited company and is not required to make statement of cash flow because of it nature of formation and ownership. References Bardia, S.C., 2012. Predicting financial distress and evaluating long-term solvency: an empirical study. IUP Journal Of Accounting Research Audit Practices, 11(1), p.47. Bradbury, M., 2011. Direct or indirect cash flow statements?. Australian Accounting Review, 21(2), pp.124-130. Chandra, P., 2011. Financial management. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. Birt, J., Chalmers, K., Byrne, S., Brooks, A. and Oliver, J., 2013. Performance measurement. Choi, F.D. and Meek, G.K., 2011. International accounting. Pearson Higher Ed. Halabi, A.K., Barrett, R. and Dyt, R., 2010. Understanding financial information used to assess small firm performance: An Australian qualitative study. Qualitative Research in Accounting Management, 7(2), pp.163-179. Horngren, C., Harrison, W., Oliver, S., Best, P., Fraser, D. and Tan, R., 2012. Financial accounting. Pearson Higher Education AU. Needles, B.E., Powers, M. and Crosson, S.V., 2013. Principles of accounting. Cengage Learning. Nobes, C., 2014. International Classification of Financial Reporting 3e. Routledge. Price, J., 2012. Return on equity traps and how to avoid them. Equity, 26(3), p.4. Schroeder, R.G., Clark, M.W. and Cathey, J.M., 2011. Financial accounting theory and analysis: text and cases. John Wiley and Sons.

U.s. Securities and Exchange Commission and Client Personnel free essay sample

A brief summary of the case is, Health Management, Inc. , a pharmaceutical distributor had a way of calculating their Allowance of doubtful accounts in a way that was not understood by Securities and Exchange Commission and misunderstood by the financial analysts. This caused the financial analysts to put the post earnings per share at $. 74 when it was really $. 54. Clifford Hotte, the CEO, was told of the $. 20 difference by Drew Bergman, the CFO, and told him he refused to take the hit, because the stock would drop. He had Drew Bergman figure out a way to fix it so they would be on target with what the financial analysts predicted. To fix it Drew Bergman overstated the year-end inventory by $1. 8 million along with a couple other small adjustments. The main reason they got away with it is because Drew Bergman used to work for the Auditing Company and therefore knew the company’s procedures. We will write a custom essay sample on U.s. Securities and Exchange Commission and Client Personnel or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Drew Bergman did this by making false papers and had people lie saying a driver left Pittsburgh facility on April 28, with $1. 3 million of drugs, two days before the end of the fiscal year. The truck then arrived after the inventory count in New York and another transfer of more than $500,000 going from New York to Pittsburgh, not using the UPS as usual. Finally they used the false papers and people to claim they forgot to count these drugs and therefore boosted their end of year inventory by $1. 8 million. 1. BDO Seidman’s attorneys pointed out correctly that professional standards do not prohibit auditors and client personnel from being â€Å"friends†. At what point do such relationships result in violations of the auditor independence rules and guidelines? Provide hypothetical examples to strengthen your answer. As the beginning of the question states: professional standards do not prohibit auditors and client personnel from being â€Å"friends. † The point at which a relationships result in violations of the auditor independence rules and guidelines is when the auditor stops being independent and being skeptical. Auditors and client personnel can be friends until the point the auditor starts overlooking thinks that seem wrong and stops being skeptical.

Nature vs Nurture in Language Acquistion Essays

Nature vs Nurture in Language Acquistion Essays Nature vs Nurture in Language Acquistion Essay Nature vs Nurture in Language Acquistion Essay Many consider the use of a complex language as a uniquely human feature (maybe with the exception of some whale species). Furthermore, we are able to learn this complex skill quite quickly. The average child has a vocabulary of six-thousand words by the time it turns five years old. It is this ability of language acquisition that is a particularly interesting field in the nature-nurture debate. Is language acquisition and development innate or taught? This debate about nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from both sides. Nature? The idea that language acquisition is an innate ability is called ‘nativism’. People supporting this view believe that the human brain is prewired for language acquisition and use. Linguist Noam Chomsky is a strong proponent of this perspective. He has spent a lot of time on developing a theory of grammar that is called universal grammar. Basically, it states that underlying all the different languages there are some basic principles. The nativists consider this universal grammar too complex to be acquirable through environmental stimuli (nurture). The proponents of this innateness believe that the human brain developed certain brain structures for language acquisition and use as a result of Darwinian evolution and the ‘survival of the fittest’ tenet. The innate knowledge of language is also called the language faculty. Chomsky considers this language faculty as a biologically autonomous system in the brain that has an initial state which is genetically determined. The fact that every known human culture developed some sort of language suggests that there is a genetic basis for the ability to construct and produce language. Furthermore all human languages seem to have some characteristics in common. They all have large vocabularies of words whose meaning is mediated through a phonological system, they all have a grammatical system that governs the way in which words are combined and they change through time by adding new words and losing old ones. Or Nurture? The second position concerning nature and nurture in language acquisition is defined by the premise that language is a consequence of our large brains with the ability to learn many things and the fact that we are extremely social beings. This is called ‘empiricism’. One the most prominent proponents of this approach is psychologist B. F. Skinner, who believes that humans are capable of language because we have the time, the opportunity and the brain capacity that is required to learn it. Empiricists explain the universal presence of language in human cultures otherwise. They state that the beneficial quality of language is responsible for the ubiquitous distribution. People who came in contact with it, adopted it because of its beneficial effects and in this way, language spread across the earth. Lastly, they claim that the ability of the human brain to understand and produce language can also be a consequence of neuronal connections that are made in early childhood. When a baby makes a certain sound that is followed by an action of a parent, there will be a neuronal connection in his brain that will be excited. After a lot of repetitions this will lead to a neural path which connects a sound with a meaning. Or a little bit of both? Is it truly nature versus nurture in language acquisition, or is it nature and nurture? Many aspects of human behavior can be explained by a collaboration of genetic and environmental aspects. Maybe this is also true for language acquisition. Perhaps some genetic features, such as our large brain or nutritional requirements have predestined us in some way to develop vocal communication, which in turn has grown to a full language as a consequence of environmental factors, such as upbringing, social system or the use of symbols. References Bates, E. (1999). On the Nature and Nurture of Language. In R. Levi-Montalcini, D. Baltimore, R. Dulbecco, amp; F. Jacob (Series Eds. ) amp; E. Bizzi, P. Calissano, amp; V. Volterra (Vol. Eds. ), Frontiere della biologia [Frontiers of biology]. The brain of homo sapiens Rome: Giovanni Trecanni. Duke University: Exploring the Mind: duke. edu/~pk10/language/psych. htm National Science Foundation: nsf. gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/learn. jsp Read more: brighthub. com/science/genetics/articles/82090. aspx#ixzz19LHeXAmf Nature vs. Nurture: The Miracle of Language by Malia Knezek Or if I would delight my private hours/ With music or with poem, where so soon/ As in our native language can I find/ That solace? - John Milton THE CONTROVERSY Why do some children build towers with blocks, cry when they scrape their knees, and shout, Choo-choo mine! when a sibling takes away their favorite toy train? Why are some children able to perform entire piano concertos or master complex mathematical concepts, while others cannot even learn to communicate in the normal way? In short, why do humans behave the way they do? With the exception of identical twins, each new human being receives a novel combination of genes divided among forty-six chromosomes. Undoubtedly, this genetic mate rial provides the basis for growth and development and, in doing so, places certain restrictions on the new infant. If the limiting action of genes seems disputable, think of how many people you know who grow to heights of more than twenty feet tall, live longer than two hundred years, or can run faster than a cheetah. My guess would be not many! Controversy does arise, however, when one tries to examine the extent of genetic influence on human behavior. Just how many of our abilities and shortcomings are innate in nature, and how many are acquired through our interactions with the environment? This debate has been going on for centuries, and popular attitudes have varied greatly throughout this time. At one extreme, we have John Lockes idea of tabula rasa, which proposes that the minds of newborn infants are blank slates that will be differentiated and altered only through sensory experience. Modern biological determinism represents the other extreme. In its strictest form, this ideology suggests that behaviors are inherent and innate, resulting from the expression of genes. Most intellectuals subscribe to a view somewhere between these two extremes, on the gradient of a controversy that is still a hot topic of debate in many intellectual fields. LANGUAGE One particularly interesting field within the nature-nurture debate that has drawn heated testimony from both sides is language acquisition. How much of our ability to produce and comprehend language is programmed into our genes, and how much do we acquire only with environmental stimulus? Obviously, language cannot be completely genetic. Humans speak a wide variety of different languages, and very young children of any race or ethnic background can learn to speak and understand any of these if exposed to appropriate models at the proper time in development. Similarly, children cannot learn to speak a public language without this critical exposure. However, all humans use language in one form or another, and psychologists and linguists have noted many cross-lingual universals both in how children acquire language and in the inherent characteristics of the languages themselves. Therefore, as is the case with most aspects of human behavior, the truth most likely lies in some combination of nature and nurture. The ability to use language is a very important part of human cognition. In fact, some would argue that it is this ability which distinguishes us from other animals. Regardless of ones view of the capability of animals to use language or language-like symbols, the fact that humans have language abilities far superior to those of other animals cannot be ignored. Despite the ubiquity of human linguistic ability, pinning down exactly how language helps us and how we use it is not at all a straightforward task. One obvious use for public language is to communicate one? s thoughts to other people. In fact, this may seem like the only, or at least the most important, use of our linguistic abilities. However, both Howard Gardner and Andy Clark stress other uses. Gardner, for example, lists four discrete uses for public language in his Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences: 1. People use language to induce action in other people. Examples of this might include a child asking a parent to hand him a toy that is on a high shelf or a boss sending a memo out to his employees asking them to hand in budget drafts by next Wednesday. . Language can be used as a tool by one individual to help that individual remember things. In this way, language expands cognitive abilities that are already present in the human brain. For example, a child may not be able to remember how many days are in December or May, but by learning the rhyme that begins, Thirty days hath September? he will easily be able to store these facts in memory. Wearing nametags at a conference and making oral or written shopping lists are other examples of using language to aid memory. 3. The third use of language involves the transfer of explanations or knowledge from one person to another. For example, the parent teaching his child how to tie his shoes and the professor giving a lecture on ionic bonding are both using language to share their knowledge with another person. It is this use that can lead to cultural evolution, which will be discussed later in this paper. 4. The fourth discrete use of language is to talk about language itself, or as Gardner states, to use language to reflect upon language, to engage in ? metalinguistic? analysis (78). A child asking his father what the word wish means and a linguist examining the syntactic rules of various languages are both using this type of metalinguistic analysis. Gardner acknowledges the wide variety of ways in which we use language, but he believes that they all fit into one of these four categories (78). In his book entitled Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again, Andy Clark agrees that language is not solely a tool for communicating thoughts or ideas. He describes the uses of language in more general terms than Gardner. To borrow a fitting analogy from Clark? book, language is a tool built for use by humans, just as is a pair of scissors. Just as scissors enable us to exploit our basic manipulative capapcities to fulfill new ends, language enables us to exploit our basic cognitive capacities of pattern recognition and transformation in ways that reach out to new behavioral and intellectual horizons (193-194). In other words, scissors take the manipulat ing abilities of human hands and use them to produce a skill that normally could not be accomplished by a human being: namely, cutting a fairly straight line through a piece of paper. Like these scissors, public language takes human abilities that already existthis time cognitive rather than manipulative in natureand expounds upon these to give this human-plus-tool combination abilities that were not achievable by the human (or the tool) alone (Clark 193-194). The use of language as an aid to memory, which Gardner lists as one of the four main uses, is an example of this type of ability-enhancement, as is the existence of technical vocabularies in such disciplines as math and physics. Can you magine, for example, trying to calculate the correct trajectory angle at which to launch a space shuttle without having words to express such concepts as trajectory, angle, force, velocity, etc.? Such a feat would be near impossible. Thus, there is general agreement on the importance of language in human cognition, and even in the different ways we use this necessary skill. The ability to use language sets humans apart from other animals and accounts, at least partly, for the uniqueness of our cognitive profile. We would definitely be a very different species were it not for this awesome skill. The question now is: How did we develop this unique ability? THE ISSUES Howard Gardner, along with Noam Chomsky and many others, believes that parts of the brain have evolved over time specifically for the purpose of producing and understanding language. Thinkers such as Andy Clark and Jean Piaget, on the other hand, believe that public language utilizes brain structures and psychological functions that were already present before the development of this important tool. In the first (nature) school of thought, linguistic abilities have developed over time as a result of Darwinian evolution. In the conflicting ideology (a nurture position), there is no innate linguistic ability; and linguistic evolution occurs as a result of learning and cultural evolution, which will be explained in greater detail below, rather than through natural selection. The beliefs do overlap; and oftentimes the proponents of one side argue against what they suppose the other side would believe, when in fact the other side subscribes to no such ideology. For example, the nature proponents argue that human brains are biologically different from the brains of other animals; and that at least part of this diference is due to innate, inherited differences in genes. However, they really need not spend time arguing for this point because the nurture proponents do not, in actuality, disagree with the fact. They also believe that genetic factors are responsible for some of the differences between the brains of humans and those of other animals. The disagreement lies only in how different our brains are from those of other animals, and how much of this difference can be attributed to genetic variances. Similarly, both sides agree that language draws from and influences other thought processes. However, there is a controversy centered around the extent of this interaction. Nature proponents see language as a very autonomous ability, while nurture proponents tend to see it as more inseparable from other, general cognitive abilities. (For more information on how language influences thought, please see Something to Talk About by Brian Skotko. Do the only disagreements, then, center around questions of degree and extent? It seems, upon cursory examination of the arguments, that the two schools of thought agree on almost all basic tenets of language use, and disagree only on the exact recipe for combining these tenets. This is not the case, however, as true disagreement does exist on some fundamental issues. First of all, Chomsky, Gardner, and others of similar ideologies believe that infants are born with a significant prewired knowledge of how languages work and how they do not work. Views within this group vary slightly, but they all hold to this basic tenet and cite ample evidence in defense of this view. These proponents of the innateness of linguistic ability also believe that the genetic basis for language came about as the result of Darwinian evolution and by an extension of the survival of the fittest argument. Again, individual views vary slightly, but all supporters of this school of thought see language as a product of Darwinian evolution (Gardner 90-91). On the other hand, Piaget, Clark, and others see the newborn as possesing only a few basic cognitive abilities. The more specific abilities we see in the developing child, they argue, are due to interactions with the environment and are independent of any inheritable code found in the genes. They place language skills in this category, and so they disagree completely with Chomsky? s assertion that humans inherit certain linguistic knowledge (Gardner 80). In addition, proponents of the Nurture ideology view public language as a tool constructed by people for use by people, and they believe its development is due to cultural evolution, a completely different mechanism for change (Clark 200-213). Perhaps it is worth taking a few moments to describe the differences between Darwinian evolution and cultural evolution. Most people are familiar with the tenets of Darwinian evolution as proposed by Charles Darwin in his Origin of the Species, and as expanded upon by numerous scientists since then. In this type of evolution, natural selection or survival of the fittest results in actual changes in the gene frequency of a species. These changes are innate and inheritable, passed down from one generation to the next by means of biological reproduction. This type of evolution is very slow, and even minor changes in a species tend to take thousands or even millions of years to occur. Cultural evolution, like Darwinian evolution, brings about changes within the human species. However, these changes occur at a much faster rate and by different mechanisms. Whereas traits in Darwinian evolution are passed from one generation to the next through genes only, without regard to what progress one generation has made or what it has learned during its lifetime, traits in cultural or Lamarckian evo lution are passed on through language from one generation to the next. This means that progress made by one generation can be selectively passed on to the next, which does not occur with random genetic mutations. The focus and ease of transfer characteristic of cultural evolution lead to changes that takes place at such a fast rate that the effects of Darwinian evolution, in comparison, are practically negligible. As scientist Stephen Jay Gould remarks, While the gene for sickle-cell anemia declines in frequency among black Americans, we have invented the railroad, the automobile, radio and television, the atom bomb, the computer, the airplane and spaceship. Clearly, cultural evolution is a distinct process from Darwinian evolution and accounts for many changes in human behavior (324). Nurture advocates in the language debate believe that humans invented language as they did computers through the process of cultural evolution. Again, subscribers to this school of thought have gathered much evidence in support of their theories. Indeed, determining which of these two theories better describes human linguistic ability will require careful examination of the arguements and evidence, and even after such examination will nonetheless prove to be a difficult task. THE LANGUAGE FACULTY As mentioned before, linguist Noam Chomsky suggests that humans are born with an innate knowledge of language, and he calls this knowledge the language faculty. He invisions this language faculty as a biologically autonomous system in the brain that has an initial state which is genetically determined, like. . . the kidney, the circulatory system, and so on (13). Chomsky supports his claim with several lines of evidence. For one thing, he argues that all humans (except, of course, those suffering from a language-related pathology) understand certain ambiguities of language the same way. For example, take the expression brown house, which could be expressed in another language as well as English. Upon hearing this expression, any human would have certain understandings that were not expressed with language explicitly. For example, even children realize that this expression contains two separate words with separate meanings, quite a feat when considering that the spoken phenomes generally run together. When spoken in English, a listener will know that the two words contain the same vowel sound. More surprisingly, when this phrase is spoken in any language, the listener will understand that the speaker is referring to a house that is brown on the outside. This is remarkable, because houses can just as easily have brown interiors, but listeners never have to ask which surface (inner or outer) the color is naming (Chomsky 20-21). Chomsky argues that this type of linguistic knowledge must be innate since every healthy human makes the same assumptions. He also suggests that knowledge such as that described above must exist in the language faculty in the brain. Linguist M. Y. Liberman describes other characteristics found in every spoken human language. First, all of these languages have very large vocabularies consisting of words whose articulatory/acoustic definition is mediated by a phonological system. Second, all languages have a grammatical system that governs the way in which these words are combined to express meaning. Third, all languages change throughout time with new words being added and old ones being dropped or changed continuously (qtd. in Studdert-Kennedy 8). Anthropologist Donald E. Brown describes even more detailed aspects of language that all humans share. First, in any given language words can exist that are the equivalent of good, wide, and deep. In some languages, opposite words (bad, narrow, and shallow) exist also. In others, however, the opposites are formed with a negating word and the original juxtaposed (not good, not wide, not deep). The surprising finding is that in no language does the negation go the other way (not bad to express good, etc. ). Does this happen because the expression of such concepts as good, wide, and deep lies n the language faculty and is innate in all humans? Chomsky would say that it does. He would also cite other universals listed by Brown, including the fact that all languages contain nouns, verbs, and possessive formations, as well as the fact that poetry around the world has lines that last about three seconds in between pauses, as evidence of a language faculty genetically present in all human brains (Brown 132). Anothe r fact that Chomsky believes supports his theory of the language faculty involves comparing humans to other species. Not only do we have a linguistic ability much superior to that of other animals, but the rules we have regarding language and symbols in general cannot be found in any other species (Chomsky 13). For example, if one were to teach a chimpanzee signs that meant brown house, he would not have all the innate knowledge described above which is present in all humans. In addition, this process would involve much teaching and learning before a chimp could learn these signs; whereas humans acquire such knowledge with little or no conscious effort taking place. This brings us to another fact that provides strong evidence for Chomskys theory: that all normal children acquire language in the same way. Chomsky prefers the term language acquisition rather than language learning, because he sees this process as a maturation of the language faculty (much like the growth of a heart or kidney) rather than a learning process (Chomsky 13). Gardner also describes this very process in his chapter on linguistic intelligence. Infants begin babbling not too long after birth, and the sounds produced during this period contain the basic sounds they hear spoken around them as well as phenomes not present in their native tongue. This is strong evidence for an innate language faculty. By the time the child turns two years old, he or she will speak single words in the native language, and soon thereafter, will begin to form very simple, twos may include drink milk, byebye Daddy, and doggy run. By the age of three, these two-word utterances grow in length and complexity, so that the three-year-old child can utter sentences of several words long, even including questions, negations, and clauses. These sentences often have grammatical errors (which can be explained by overgeneralization and remain consistent throughout speakers of a single language), such as in the example, I no watch T. V. no more. By the time the child is four or five years old, he no longer makes these grammatical mistakes; and he can speak wit h considerable fluency in ways that closely approximate adult syntax (Gardner 79). Three aspects of this form of language acquisition are of interest in light of Chomskys theory. That all children follow this development regardless of the language they speak supports Chomskys claim of an inate language organ that is maturing through this process. Secondly, during the babbling stage, babies produce phenomes they have never heard, from a variety of different languages spoken around the world. Chomsky believes that this is due to the fact that the language faculty already contains knowledge of all the sounds that can be produced in any natural spoken language, more evidence for extensive innate language knowledge. Third, normally-developed four-year-olds are already able to come up with appealing figures of speech (comparing a foot falling asleep to bubbling ginger ale); tell short stories? alter their speech register depending upon whether they are addressing adults, peers, or toddlers younger than themselves, and even engage in simple metalinguistic banter. The latter includes asking such questions as What does X mean? and Should I say X or Y? These feats are truly remarkable, and as of yet no machine or computer program has even come close to reproducing them (Gardner 80). According to Chomsky, young children would not be able to accomplish such feats without the aid of an innate knowledge system based on language. The biology of the brain can also support Chomskys theory. Almost all right-handed humans have language centers located in the left hemisphere of the brain. This left hemisphere is larger and structurally different from the right hemisphere, an asymmetry that can be traced to the Neanderthal man, but is not seen in monkeys (Gardner 90). There are several specialized regions in the left hemisphere that are used for various language tasks, such as Brocas area for producing language and Wernickes area for comprehending language spoken by others. Lesions to various regions of the brain cause very distinctive aphasias, or language problems; and the same area causes the same aphasia across the species. For more information on the neurobiology of language and the specific aphasias, please see Bora Lees paper entitled The evidence gleaned from studies f aphasic patients supports Chomskys theory by pinpointing various areas of the brain that seem to be a part of this innate language faculty. The final evidence for Chomskys view of language comes from evolutionary studies. As mentioned earlier, brain asymmetry linked to the language faculty has been found to exist in Neanderthal man, which means they date back thirty thousand to one hundred thousand years. There is also evidence that this asymmetry may exist even in the gre at apes, although evidence is not conclusive. Either way, the structural brain regions needed for language have been present in the species long before recorded history, which suggests a gradual evolution of intellectual capacities (Gardner 90). Many intellectuals on the nature side of the language debate believe that this could explain how humans acquired their language abilities through gradual evolution. Chomsky, however, has a different view. He believes that our language capabilities could not have evolved gradually; and, instead, he proposes that the entire language faculty came in one evolutionary step (Gardner 91). Regardless of their views on the specifics of evolution, all nature advocates believe that human lingual ability results from an innate, inherited language faculty through which lingual information is passed on from one generation to the next. LANGUAGE AS AN ARTIFACT Those who believe that language is learned through intellectual processes common to all learning and who do not believe in an innate language faculty explain the evidence presented above in another way. According to proponents of the nurture theory, humans are much more advanced than other animals because they are able to use language, rather than the other way around. The mechanisms that make this possible will be explained in the next few pages. One major type of evidence that Chomsky and others who believe in an innate language faculty often cite is the universal characteristics of language itself and of language acquisition in humans. But does the fact that all humans exhibit a certain behavior really prove that that behavior is due to the genetic code of the human? As Donald E. Brown explains in his book entitled Human Universals, this is not necessarily the case. [U]niversals form a heterogeneous set. A great many, for example, seem to be inherent in human nature. Some are cultural conventions that have come to have universal distribution (4). To understand how a behavior exhibited by all humans can be due to culture rather than genetics, consider the example of cooking food. All humans cook their food, but there is no cooking gene that genetically programs us to do this. Rather, cooking was discovered by some human and found to be so beneficial that every human who came in contact with the procedure adopted it. In this way, cooking spread across the earth and became a universal, even without a genetic basis. Could the universals found in language be explained in the same way? Language certainly seems to be beneficial enough to have spread this way from human to human and culture to culture. However, this does not explain why we have special parts of the brain dedicated to language or why humans can communicate through language while other animals cannot. In order to understand how a culturally based model of language could account for these facts, it is important to examine how new models are being used to explain the brain and human behavior. The brain, above all else, is an organ whose purpose is to manipulate the behavior of the body in an environment to secure survival. This is true of all species from the snail to the human. It has been shown experimentally that experience causes structural and chemical changes at the synapses between neurons which means that learning takes place in the connections between neurons. If, for example, a dog finds that jumping over a fence allows him to eat some meat barbecuing in the neighbors yard, and if this behavior gets this reward several times, then the connections between his neurons will strengthen in the path that goes from smelling meet to jumping the fence. If, however, the dog tries to jump the fence one day and gets shocked by an electrical wire, the weights of connections will become weaker. If this happens several times, then the neuronal path between smelling meat and jumping the fence will have a strong inhibitory connection, so that the dog no longer performs this behavior. How does this relate to a human brain producing and understanding language? Well, suppose a baby finds that if he produces the sound wa-wa he will receive a drink of water. The neuronal connections between his feeling of thirst and his speaking the sound wa-wa will be strongly excitatory, and he will have learned to communicate. If, however, his mother decides to break him from the habit of baby-talk and only gives him water when he pronounces the entire word water, then the connections between thirst and wa-wa will become inhibitory and a new neural path, between thirst and water, will become more excitatory. This still does not explain why so many people have the same assumptions when hearing the phrase brown house or why language functions are so specific to regions of our brains. To understand these phenomena, one must realize that humans use language as a tool that alters the nature of the computational tasks involved in various kinds of problem solving (Clark 193). To return to the scissors analogy from before, humans created scissors in order to increase the scope of our manual skills to include cutting straight lines. Similarly, we created language to increase the scope of our mental abilities. Just as scissors have one part for manipulating the environment (the blades) and one for making them easier to hold (the handles), language also performs a double function. Not only must language be able to cause changes in the environment (or in our own thinking, such as when we write a grocery list to remember what we need to buy), but the language we use must also fit the intellectual abilities we already have. Thus, language as a tool would not be helpful if it demanded more of our intellect than it provided in benefits. Because of this fact, language is constantly evolving in two directionsto better express our ideas and manipulate the world and to better fit the structures and functions of our various brain regions (Clark 193-194). If, for example, the area in the left hemisphere that we call Brocas area was already well-adapted to finding structure and rules in a random input of stimulus, then this area would naturally be where the grammatical structure of language is stored; and a lesion to this area would then make it hard for the subject to produce gramatically meaningful speech. This could explain the assymetry of the brain and the cases of aphasia that show the brains specificity. Just because all humans have a Brocas area that houses the faculties for producing grammatical speech does not necessarily mean that Brocas area evolved for this purpose. What about the fact that other animals do not have similar language capabilities? Obviously, if you place a snail (or even a monkey) in a situation where it comes in contact with many models of human speech, it will still not learn to use language. This obviously involves ome innate difference between humans and other animals, which means that we have genes that are different from those of other animals. However, the difference could just lie in our vocal tracts and our hearing ability. Chances are that this is not the case since other animals do not use any other form of language (i. e. sign language) even though they have the physiological capabilities. Most likely, there are some differences between human brai ns and those of other animals, though the differences need not be nearly as pronounced as Chomsky and others believe they are. As explained above, the language tool that we have invented gives us many mental capabilities we would not have otherwise, including thinking about thinking. Thus, a tiny evolutionary difference in our brain could have given us the ability to invent language, an artifact that may make possible not only higher-order thinking exhibited by humans, but perhaps even the consciousness that we so dearly treasure (Clark 208-209). So all we can say for sure is that language, like so many other aspects of human behavior, has proven to be the product of nature and nurture working together. This amazing human ability to communicate through language is both the result and the cause of our uniqueness as human beings. Language is a tool indeed: Simple enough for a child to effortly grasp, yet so complex that we may never completely understand just how genetics and experience interact to produce this most integral human trait. Brown, Donald E. Human Universals. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. , 1991. Chomsky, Noam. Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Socail Order. Boston: South End Press, 1996. Clark, Andy. Being There: Putting Brain, Body, and World Together Again. Cambridge, Mass. : The MIT Press, 1997. Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Harper Collins, 1983. Gould, Stephen Jay. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W. W. Norton amp; Company, 1981. Studdert-Kennedy, Michael, ed. Psychobiology of Language. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 1983. Almost all human beings acquire a language (and sometimes more than one), to the level of native competency, before age 5. How do children accomplish this remarkable feat in such a short amount of ime? Which aspects of language acquisition are biologically programmed into the human brain and which are based on experience? Do adults learn language differently from children? Researchers have long debated the answers to these questions, but there is one thing they agree on: language acquisition is a complex process. Most researchers agree that children acquire language through interplay of biology and environ mental factors. A challenge for linguists is to figure out how nature and nurture come together to influence language learning. Emphasis on NatureSome researchers theorize that children are born with an innate biological â€Å"device† for understanding the principles and organization common to all languages. According to this theory, the brain’s â€Å"language module† gets programmed to follow the specific grammar of the language a child is exposed to early in life. Yet the language rules and grammar children use in their speech often exceed the input to which they are exposed. What accounts for this discrepancy? That is where the theory of universal grammar comes in. This theory posits that all languages have the same basic structural foundation. While children are not genetically â€Å"hard-wired† to speak a particular language like Dutch or Japanese, universal grammar lets them learn the rules and patterns of these languages- including those they were never explicitly taught. Some linguists believe that universal grammar and its interaction with the rest of the brain is the design mechanism that allows children to become fluent in any language during the first few years of life. In fact, childhood may be a critical period for the acquisition of language capabilities. Some scientists claim that if a person does not acquire any language before the teen-aged years, they will never do so in a functional sense. Children may also have a heightened ability, compared to adults, to learn second languagesespecially in natural settings. Adults, however, may have some advantages in the conscious study of a second language in a classroom setting. Emphasis on Experience and UsageNot all linguists believe that the innate capacities are most important in language learning. Some researchers place greater emphasis on the influence of usage and experience in language acquisition. They argue that adults play an important role in language acquisition by speaking to children- often in a slow, grammatical and repetitious way. In turn, children discern patterns in the language and experiment with speech gradually- uttering single words at first and eventually stringing them together to construct abstract expressions. At first glance, this may seem reminiscent of how language is traditionally taught in classrooms. But most scientists think children and adults learn language differently. While they may not do it as quickly and easily as children seem to, adults can learn to speak new languages proficiently. However, few would be mistaken for a native speaker of the non-native tongue. Childhood may be a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language such as proper pronunciation. What factors account for the different language learning capabilities of adults and children? Researchers suggest accumulated experience and knowledge could change the brain over time, altering the way language information is organized and/or processed. Why Further Study is NeededWhile our understanding of language acquisition is incomplete, this pursuit is well worth the effort, according to NSF program officer Joan Maling. We still don’t understand how a child learns its first language, why some children have language disorders or how children and adults learn a second language,† she says. â€Å"And we still don’t understand what happens when a stroke or a disease such as Alzheimer’s seems to wipe out a person’s knowledge of language. † Unraveling the process of language acquisition promises not only to help scientists answer these questions, but to explain fundamental features of learning and the human brain. By Nicole Mahoney

Packaging and Pricing Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Packaging and Pricing Strategy - Essay Example One firm that has successfully integrated into the Lowes paradigm is Green Fiber. I.-Introduction Lowe’s Home Improvement Warehouse is an American-based chain of retail home improvement and appliance stores. The Mooresville, North Carolina-based chain has grown from a tiny hardware store into the world’s second-largest home improvement retailer. (Fortune, 2008) Lowe’s is ranked 48 in the 2008 Fortune 500 Largest Corporations in America. (Fortune, 2008) The company has grown nationwide and today, its stores offer around 40,000 products in stock and even more products are available through their Special Order Service. (Lowes, 2013) One of the most unique branding success stories within the Lowes family is Green Fiber. Green Fiber has developed the capacity to turn what has previously been an environmental "problem" into a major commodity in the building products industry. Green Fiber's natural fiber insulation offers a substantial environmental benefit: made from 8 5 percent recycled paper fiber, Green Fiber insulation products divert millions of tons of paper from landfill each year. (Green Fiber, 2013) As a natural fiber blow-in insulation made with no harmful chemicals, Green Fiber insulation products provide a safe option for builders and DIY homeowners that wish to improve the efficiency of their home insulation without introducing chemically treated materials. (Green Fiber, 2013) Product Description: Green Fiber Cellulose Insulation provides a smart environmentally-friendly choice for home upgrades and new construction. Cellulose insulation is a cost-effective alternative to conventional fiberglass insulation. It provides a green, efficient, non-toxic, affordable thermal solution that increases any homes efficiency and thermal qualities. Blow In Natural Fiber Insulation acts as a thermal blanket in the attic space of a home by increasing the insulation R-values and making homes more energy efficient. (Green Fiber, 2013) II. Current Produ ct Analysis: Green Fiber Insulation is currently the only cellulose-based insulation material offered by Lowes Home Improvement Warehouses. (Lowes, 2013) The main product competitor found on the shelves of Lowes is conventional pink fiberglass insulation that is sold in rolls and bundles. The established presentation of the product is adequate but not dazzling. The simple fact is that Green Fiber Insulation is treated just like its Fiber Glass insulation competitors. In Lowes Home Improvement Stores it is sold as a bulk basic material with limited product information beyond R-Value properties and quick installation guides. The Product Life Cycle of Green Fiber Insulation is at an intersection point. Since the product’s introduction in 2000 cellulose insulation product sales have grown by over 57%. (Green Fiber, 2013) Cost of Green Fiber Insulation is declining on a per unit basis because of increased sales. As profitability for Green Fiber has increased direct competitors (ce llulose insulation manufacturers) and indirect competitors (fiberglass insulation manufacturer’s) have regressed into the market and are attempting to challenge Green Fibers position.

Employment Law--Whitakers Fine Wines Limited Essay

Employment Law--Whitakers Fine Wines Limited - Essay Example Some of these mistakes include are discussed herein. Principle and application of law relating to Adam’s employment At the time of his inclusion into the firm, Adam had his job specifically spelled out for him. His job entailed overseeing general sales as a manager. This he has done effectively and is yielding positive returns. According to the Employment Rights Act 1996, before taking up a job, one is normally briefed on his or her scope of operation which to Adam was the state of Surrey. When the sales manager for the Hampshire area eventually falls sick and is not therefore able to respond to his official duties, the company must find a replacement as soon as possible and ensure that the interests of the company are upheld. Some of the known ways of filling such vacancies have been through appointing an assistant to the victim to take over his position or to request assistance from another employee of equal rank. The firm opted for the later but failed to realise that in su ch a circumstance, the solicited services are offered on an interim basis which should not always last more than three weeks (Kidner, 2013). When Collins fails to return to work by the third month, the firm ought to have found a permanent solution to his truancy (United Bank Ltd v. Akhtar [1989] IRLR 507). Adam, being a dedicated employee, does both the tasks diligently despite the fact that he is overwhelmed. When he can bear the strain no longer, he lodges a formal complaint with his bosses. This was a formal and an expected way of handling such issues. His bosses assure him that they will look into the matter and find an amicable solution sooner; this assurance however, is given verbally by an immediate boss. This, according to the Equality Act 2010, is a clear show that the firm treats its employees with a lot of negligence. An employee communicates officially with his employers over very pertinent issues of production and the best the firm does is to device mechanisms of avoidi ng claims by merely failing to respond to the letters sent to them and the responsible officer is left to give an unbinding verbal communication in response. Adam eventually develops a life threatening condition from his employment. Given the nature of the disease, it is clear that he developed it out of the frustrations he experienced out of his work place. In case of a court case, it will be very difficult to exonerate the firm since it is clear that the firm bears all the claims. After admitting responsibility of the above faults, the firm should send a formal invitation to Adam expressing regret in the maltreatment he underwent and offer him an opportunity for talks. The receipt of this letter may prompt Adam to take the case to court since it will be evidence of the laxity shown to him by his employers and an admission of culpability. Conclusion The company has shown a lot of laxity in handling its employees. Issues affecting employees is not amicably looked into and the level of negligence specifically shown to Adam’s case is unacceptable. The company risks facing serious industrial actions should the case be filed in a court of law. The firm must therefore carry out very prudent restructuring strategies to try and convince its employees that in deed it holds their interests at heart and avert any legal tussle. On Adam’s case, a great deal of mistake has taken place, the